Social Identity Theory Definition, Examples, Impact

Social identity is the part of the self that is defined by one’s group memberships. Social identity theory, which was formulated by social psychologist Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the conditions under which social identity becomes more important than one’s identity as an individual. The theory also specifies the ways in which social identity can influence intergroup behavior. Key Takeaways: Social Identity Theory Social identity theory, introduced by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the cognitive processes related to social identity and how social identity impacts intergroup behavior.Social identity theory is built on three key cognitive components: social categorization, social identification, and social comparison.Generally, individuals wish to maintain a positive social identity by maintaining their group’s favorable social standing over that of relevant out-groups.In-group favoritism can result in negative and discriminatory outcomes, but research demonstrates that in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination are distinct phenomena, and one does not necessarily predict the other. Origins: Studies of In-Group Favoritism Social identity theory arose from Henri Tajfel’s early work, which examined the way perceptual processes resulted in social stereotypes and prejudice. This led to a series of studies that Tajfel and his colleagues conducted in the early 1970s that are referred to as minimal-group studies. In these studies, participants were arbitrarily assigned to different groups. Despite the fact that their group membership was meaningless, however, the research showed that participants favored the group they were assigned to — their in-group — over the out-group, even if they received no personal benefits from their group membership and had no history with members of either group. The studies demonstrated that group membership was so powerful that simply classifying people into groups is enough to make people think of themselves in terms of that group membership. Furthermore, this categorization led to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination, indicating that intergroup conflict could exist in the absence of any direct competition between groups. On the basis of this research, Tajfel first defined the concept of social identity in 1972. The concept of social identity was created as a means to consider the way one conceptualizes the self-based on the social groups to which one belongs. Then, Tajfel and his student John Turner introduced social identity theory in 1979. The theory aimed to illuminate both the cognitive processes that lead people to define their group memberships and the motivational processes that enable people to maintain positive social identity by favorably comparing their social group to other groups. Cognitive Processes of Social Identity Social identity theory specifies three mental processes individuals go through to make in-group/out-group classifications. The first process, social categorization, is the process by which we organize individuals into social groups in order to understand our social world. This process enables us to define people, including ourselves, on the basis of the groups to which we belong. We tend to define people based on their social categories more often than their individual characteristics. Social categorization generally results in an emphasis on the similarities of people in the same group and the differences between people in separate groups. One can belong to a variety of social categories, but different categories will be more or less important depending on social circumstances. For example, a person can define themselves as a business executive, an animal lover, and a devoted aunt, but those identities will only come up if they are relevant to the social situation. The second process, social identification, is the process of identifying as a group member. Socially identifying with a group leads individuals to behave in the way that they believe members of that group should behave. For instance, if an individual defines herself as an environmentalist, she may try to conserve water, recycle whenever possible, and march in rallies for climate change awareness. Through this process, people become emotionally invested in their group memberships. Consequently, their self-esteem is impacted by the status of their groups. The third process, social comparison, is the process by which people compare their group with other groups in terms of prestige and social standing. In order to maintain self-esteem, one must perceive his or her in-group as having a higher social standing than an out-group. For example, a movie star might judge himself favorably in comparison to a reality TV show star. Yet, he may see himself as having a lower social standing in comparison to a famous classically-trained Shakespearean actor. It’s important to remember that an in-group member won’t compare themselves with just any out-group — the comparison must be pertinent to the situation. Maintenance of Positive Social Identity As a general rule, people are motivated to feel positive about themselves and maintain their self-esteem. The emotional investments people make in their group memberships results in their self-esteem being tied to the social standing of their in-groups. Consequently, a positive evaluation of ones in-group in comparison to relevant out-groups results in a positive social identity. If a positive evaluation of ones in-group isn’t possible, however, individuals will generally employ one of three strategies: Individual mobility. When an individual does not view her group favorably, she can attempt to  leave the current group and join one with a higher social standing. Of course, this won’t alter the status of the group, but it can alter the status of the individual.Social creativity. In-group members can enhance the social standing of their existing group by adjusting some element of the between-group comparison. This can be accomplished by choosing a different dimension  on which to compare the two groups, or by adjusting value judgments so that what was once thought to be negative is now considered positive. Another option is to compare the in-group to a different out-group—specifically, an out-group that has a lower social status.Social competition. In-group members can attempt to enhance the groups social status by collectively working to improve their situation. In this case, the in-group competes directly with an out-group with the objective of reversing the group s social positions on one or more dimensions. Discrimination Against Out-Groups In-group favoritism and out-group discrimination are often viewed as two sides of the same coin. However, research has shown that this is not necessarily the case. There is not a systematic relationship between the positive perception of one’s in-group and the negative perception of out-groups. Helping in-group members while withholding such help from out-group members differs significantly from actively working to harm out-group members. In-group favoritism can result in negative outcomes, from prejudice and stereotypes to institutional racism and sexism. However, such favoritism does not always lead to hostility towards out-groups. Research demonstrates that in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination are distinct phenomena, and one does not necessarily predict the other. Sources Brewer, Marilynn B. â€Å"Intergroup Relations.† Advanced Social Psychology: The State of the Science, edited by Roy F. Baumeister and Eli J. Finkel, Oxford University Press, 2010, pp. 535-571.Ellemers, Naomi. â€Å"Social Identity Theory.† Encyclopedia Britannica, 2017.McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Social Identity Theory.† Simply Psychology, 2008.Hogg, Michael A., and Kipling D. Williams. â€Å"From I to We: Social Identity and the Collective Self.† Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, vol. 4, no. 1, 2000, pp. 81-97.Tajfel, Henri, and John Turner. â€Å"An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.† The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by William G. August and Stephen Worchel, Brooks/Cole, 1979, pp. 33-47.

Virginia Woolfs Jacobs Room - Jacob Flanders, Many...

Virginia Woolfs Jacobs Room - Jacob Flanders, Many Things to Many Readers Listless is the air in an empty room, just swelling the curtain; the flowers in the jar shift. One fibre in the wicker arm- chair creaks, though no one sits there. - Jacobs Room The year 1922 marks the beginning of High Modernism with the publications of T. S. Eliots The Wasteland, James Joyces Ulysses, and Virginia Woolfs Jacobs Room. Woolfs novel, only her third, is not generally afforded the iconic worship and critical praise so often attached to those works of her most famous male contemporaries. Jacobs Room is seldom suggested as one of Woolfs best fiction; the novel has not generated the same encomia as her recognized masterpieces Mrs.†¦show more content†¦These novels largely followed the precedent of Victorian and Edwardian realistic characterization and narrative consciousness. The story of Rachel Vinrace is conveyed through the traditional omniscient, omnipresent narrative consciousness which occasionally projects its own thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions onto the reality of Rachels world. In Jacobs Room, Woolf extends the omniscience of the narrator exponentially. Consciousness or narrative voice is no longer centered in a singul ar fictional being. Instead, the narrative consciousness is dispersed across the whole of the works universe; the collective voice of the novel includes the traditional impersonal presence as well as Jacobs view, Betty Flanders view, the view of the London crowds, and many others. When the novel was published on 27 October 1922 by the Hogarth Press and printed by R. R. Clark of Edinburgh, Woolf was terribly anxious about its critical reception because of her radical experimentation in the work (Letters 574) and its departure from the fictional conventions of works by writers like Bennet and Wells, as well as her own previous novels. She was strongly impressed by the Russian writers of the late nineteenth century, who had only recently been translated into English. As a writer always seeking newShow MoreRelatedA Room Of Ones Own And Terry Eagleton Analysis1098 Words   |  5 Pages There are many different theories you can look for when reading literature. You have five of Terry Eagleton’s theories which are reader’s response, feminism, psychological view, and historical, and formalism. There is Nietzsche’s theory where he believes everything is a metaphor, everything can be interpreted differently by the reader. Emerson’s theory is transidlism and existentialism. Transidlism is when someone will accept that there are miracles in the world. Existentialism is when someone doesn’tRead More Rebecca Wests The Return of the Soldier and Virginia Woolfs Jacobs Room2731 Words   |  11 PagesReturn of the Soldier and Virginia Woolfs Jacobs Room Rebecca West and Virginia Woolf give great significance to the families of their respective main characters in The Return of the Soldier and Jacob’s Room because it gives the reader a greater insight to the formation of and reasoning for both Chris and Jacob’s nature. Each of these characters have multiple families to deal with: Chris has Kitty and Jenny on the one hand, and Margaret on the other, while Jacob deals with his mother and

Mistaken Identity in Twelfth Night Essay Example For Students

Mistaken Identity in Twelfth Night Essay Throughout Twelfth Night there is much foolery, fantasy and mistaken identity. These incidents have made the play more fun, interesting and surprising and have certainly given the play a few twists. Outline1 Olivia and Viola-Cesario (I, v)2 Malvolio and Olivia (II, V)3 Viola and Antonio (III, iv) Olivia and Viola-Cesario (I, v) The first and most important case of mistaken identity in my opinion, began in Act 1, scene 5, in Olivias household. Viola-Cesario was sent by Orsino to try and woo Olivia for him but Viola, in love with Orsino herself, knew that she would not want to do this: Ill do my best to woo your lady. Yet a barful strife! Whoeer I woo, myself would be his wife. (I, iv, l. 39-41). The two got on well although there was much verbal fencing, but by the time Viola-Cesario had left, Olivia feared she had fallen in love with him. We learn this from Olivias words after Viola-Cesarios departure: Even so quickly may one catch the plague? Methinks I feel this youths perfections With an invisible and subtle stealth To creep in mine eyes. Well, let it be. (I, v, l. 250-3) So, complications were forming already in just the first act: Olivia had fallen in love with the disguised woman, viola; Viola was in love with Orsino, who believed her to be a man; and Orsino was in love with Olivia, who despised him. A love triangle full of complications, lies and mistaken identity had formed. This incident leads to become the main source of many problems (and humour) to come. Some of which include the duel between Sir Andrew and Viola-Cesario and the marriage of Olivia and Sebastian, Violas twin brother. Overall, this case of mistaken identity leads to many humorous predicaments and in my opinion it is the most important one: it complicates and adds twists to the plot throughout the play, not to mention the humour it brings. Malvolio and Olivia (II, V) A rather amusing case of mistaken identity began in Olivias garden. Sir Toby, Sir Andrew, Fabian and Maria had written a letter made to look like it was from Olivia, declaring love for someone and saying she liked a list of things that in reality Olivia hated. They placed it where Malvolio would pick it up, knowing he would believe it to be about him, and watched from behind a bush as Malvolio read it aloud. The letter is very clever and Shakespeare even managed to include a crude joke: By my life, this is my ladys hand: these be her cs, her us, and her ts, and thus makes she her great Ps. (II, v, l. 72-3). Malvolio read on to discover that Olivia liked yellow stockings (a colour she hated) with cross-gartering. He was also told to treat his fellow workers as inferiors to him and to smile jokily all day, a mood that Olivia was not in with the death of her brother. Malvolio then doing as Olivia had said, came before her looking ridiculous and hinting that he knew of the letter: this cross-gartering If it please the eye of one, its with me I think we do know the sweet Roman hand. (III, iv, l. 20-6). Malvolio continued to hint and recite quotes from her letter for some time, making a complete fool out of himself. When Sir Toby entered, Malvolio was rude to him as the letter instructed, but he was accused of being possessed and was told he was mad: La you, and you speak ill of the devil, how he takes it at the heart! Pray God he be not bewitched! (III, iv, l. 87-8). Later, Malvolio was imprisoned and tormented by the mocking Sir Toby and Feste as if he were mad. .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 , .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .postImageUrl , .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 , .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:hover , .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:visited , .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:active { border:0!important; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:active , .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3 .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u983c4ab8c90216167b1df3c88aa28af3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: How does Shakespeare reveal Shylock to us in Act III Scene 1 EssayOverall, this instance of mistaken identity includes many scenes of comedy and supplies good entertainment for the audience. It was not fun for poor Malvolio, but he was none the wiser of the joke being played on him and I think it was quite satisfying as a reader or viewer of the play to see him make a fool out of himself. Viola and Antonio (III, iv) Another interesting case of mistaken identity began in the middle of Sir Andrew and Viola-Cesarios duel a branch from the Olivia and Viola mistaken identity. Sir Andrew was on the verge of leaving Illyria because his desire to woo Olivia was not getting anywhere as she was paying more attention to Viola-Cesario. So, with some persuasion from Sir Toby he challenged Viola-Cesario to a duel and so win Olivias affection by his bravery. Of course Sir Toby took over and exaggerated the facts so when the duel came neither of them wanted to fight and they were both terrified of one another. Sir Andrew even tried to bribe Viola: Let him let the matter slip, and Ill give him my horse, Grey Capilet. (III, iv, l. 242). But when the duel came, Antonio, mistaking Viola for her twin brother Sebastian, intervened: Put up your sword! If this young gentleman have done offence, I take the fault on me. (III, iv, l. 264-5). This of course baffled everyone, especially Viola as she had never seen the man before. But at this point two officers arrived to arrest Antonio for his doings at sea and he asked Sebastian for the money he had lent him. Viola said that she had no idea who he was and Antonio, still believing her to be Sebastian, rightfully got very angry and upset: Will you deny me now? Ist possible that my deserts to you Can lack persuasion? Do not tempt my misery. (III, iv, l. 298-300). And later: Thou hast, Sebastian, done good feature shame. In nature theres no blemish but the mind: None can be called deformed but the unkind. (III, iv, l. 317-9). This case of mistaken identity caused hurt feelings and confusion to those involved. Unlike the other cases, it is not humorous and few events branch from it. The incident is an interesting and more serious part of the play, which involves another mistake over Violas identity. As a final summary, I think mistaken identity is a very important aspect of Twelfth Night: it provides humour, complications and interesting twists to the play. As a reader or viewer of Twelfth Night it is very enjoyable to know the thoughts of each character while they go around not knowing the truth and making mistakes. In some ways Twelfth Night is almost like a pantomime: the mistaken identity supplies a fantastical, foolish and humorous mood to the play.

Morality and Relgion - Irish Murdoch free essay sample

A person can just accept the morality the religion teaches. pg. 734, para 3 (con’t): Religion’s demand for morality and being good trumps a person’s decision to fulfill a personal/independent call toward duty. -Murdoch separates â€Å"call of duty† from religion’s demand to â€Å"be good† and states that a person may take time off from duty, but not from the demand to be good. -So duty involves free will to choose and doesn’t have to involve religion -Murdoch clarifies duty as the â€Å"rational formation of moral maxims for particular situations,† emphasizing again a personal choice based on reason for how to act. Murdoch states that we can sense morality intuitively even without religion. For this intuitive knowledge, she uses the term â€Å"noumenal. † -The German Philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) seems to have struggled with the tension between intuitively felt morality and practical morality based on duty. -Murdo ch claims that we can tell apart the dutiful man from the virtuous man, and this distinction is not the same as the relationship of the dutiful man to the religious man. We will write a custom essay sample on Morality and Relgion Irish Murdoch or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Duty seems to imply a more practical morality, like giving taxes, than a morality of virtue, which is less tangible. pg. 735, para 3 (con’t): Murdoch begins to discuss the complexity of moral choices and balancing one’s competing moral questions/demands while living a single moral existence. -She gives the examples of a character from a novel who must choose between lying or saving her own life, or in Shakespeare, a character won’t give up her virginity to save her brother’s life. Murdoch calls our desire for a unified morality, for a reconciliation of these competing moral demands, a â€Å"religious craving. † [so whether or not we’re religious, we have religious tendencies? ] -She thinks that maybe clear moral rules from religion would make things easier, but she sees a trend in her time of a relaxing of black/white clear-cut morality that used to be so prevalent. pg. 735, para 4: Murdoch thinks that religious belief may push a person toward morality more effectively than non-religious morality because it’s so ingrained in a person. Even criminals who grew up religious keep Christian images with them their whole lives, which shows religion’s staying power. -This retention of religious images from childhood suggests religion’s importance for children, and so even many parents who have given up religion as adults may feel that it makes sense to raise their own children with religion. -But more no nonsense type people would argue that raising a child with religion, when religion isn’t true, seems deceptive toward the child. Murdoch wonders if maybe the only difference between a morally upright religious person and a morally uprigh t non-religious person may be completely superficial distinction like two names for the same thing or just a slightly different style of living, but the difference is only on the surface. -But Murdoch admits that religious people experience a heightened consciousness, which resonates with literary critic Matthew Arnold’s claim that religion is â€Å"morality touched by emotion. † Murdoch explains the great intensity and assuredness that religion provides: it is deep, holy, absolute, engages one’s imagination, and engages the whole person at every moment of his/her life, and every moment matters. -Murdoch concludes that a high level of morality without religion doesn’t have any foundation. -With religion, Christians have points of reference to give their morality foundation, like the image of Christ, and Murdoch suggests that Christians adjust their attitudes to resonate with the image of Christ in order to make their beliefs true. So these images Christians create become for them the truth even though they’re man made. ] -Since images of Christ change over time, Christianity is a continuous adjustment to its images throughout history. [suggesting a perpetuation of a fantasy or that religion changes as historical periods change] pg. 737, para 5: Murdoch uses the example of a simple Welsh traveling pastor’s (Francis Kilvert’s) journal entries to demonstrate how religious reverence can make someone sound comfortably dumb, naive, simple, humble. Kilvert is so secure in his faith that he is like a child. pg. 38, para 5 (con’t